Sources and bibliography

• American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.; DSM-5-TR). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787
• World Health Organization. (2024). Clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240077263
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2018). Post-traumatic stress disorder (NICE Guideline NG116). https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116
• U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs & U.S. Department of Defense. (2023). VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for management of posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder. https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/mh/ptsd/
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach (HHS Publication No. SMA 14-4884).

• Benjet, C., et al. (2016). The epidemiology of traumatic event exposure worldwide: Results from the World Mental Health Survey Consortium. Psychological Medicine, 46(2), 327-343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715001981
• Bryant, R. A. (2019). Post-traumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-art review of evidence and challenges. World Psychiatry, 18(3), 259-269. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20656
• Charuvastra, A., & Cloitre, M. (2008). Social bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 301-328. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085650
• Shalev, A., Liberzon, I., & Marmar, C. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder. The New England Journal of Medicine, 376(25), 2459-2469. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1612499
• U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD. (n.d.). PTSD basics. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/what/ptsd_basics.asp

• Bride, B. E. (2007). Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 52(1), 63-70. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/52.1.63
• Dekel, R., & Monson, C. M. (2010). Military-related post-traumatic stress disorder and family relations: Current knowledge and future directions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(4), 303-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2010.03.001
• Figley, C. R. (Ed.). (1995). Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized. Brunner/Mazel.
• Lambert, J. E., Holzer, J., & Hasbun, A. (2014). Association between parents’ PTSD severity and children’s psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(1), 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21891

• Dazzi, T., Gribble, R., Wessely, S., & Fear, N. T. (2014). Does asking about suicide and related behaviours induce suicidal ideation? What is the evidence? Psychological Medicine, 44(16), 3361-3363. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714001299
• Gould, M. S., Marrocco, F. A., Kleinman, M., Thomas, J. G., Mostkoff, K., Cote, J., & Davies, M. (2005). Evaluating iatrogenic risk of youth suicide screening programs: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 293(13), 1635–1643. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.13.1635
• National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.). Frequently asked questions about suicide. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-faq
• National Institute of Mental Health. (2024). 5 action steps to help someone having thoughts of suicide. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/5-action-steps-to-help-someone-having-thoughts-of-suicide
• U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs & U.S. Department of Defense. (2024). VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for assessment and management of patients at risk for suicide. https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/mh/srb/

• Griffin, B. J., Purcell, N., Burkman, K., Litz, B. T., Bryan, C. J., Schmitz, M., Villierme, C., Walsh, J., & Maguen, S. (2019). Moral injury: An integrative review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(3), 350-362. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22362
• Litz, B. T., Stein, N., Delaney, E., Lebowitz, L., Nash, W. P., Silva, C., & Maguen, S. (2009). Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: A preliminary model and intervention strategy. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 695-706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.003
• Shay, J. (2014). Moral injury. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 31(2), 182-191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036090
• U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD. (2025). Moral injury and PTSD. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/related/moral_injury_ptsd.asp

• Smith, C. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2013). Dangerous safe havens: Institutional betrayal exacerbates sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 119-124. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21778
• Smith, C. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2014). Institutional betrayal. American Psychologist, 69(6), 575-587. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037564
• Smith, C. P. (2017). First, do no harm: Institutional betrayal and trust in health care organizations. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 10, 133-144. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S125885

• Gangel, M. J., Kemmerly, R., Wilson, L., Glickson, S., Frazier, P. A., Tennen, H., & Jayawickreme, E. (2024). Does perceived posttraumatic growth predict observed changes in current-standing and state posttraumatic growth? Clinical Psychological Science, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026231182329
• Park, C. L., Wilt, J. A., Russell, B. S., & Fendrich, M. R. (2022). Does perceived post-traumatic growth predict better psychological adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic? Results from a national longitudinal survey in the USA. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 146, 179-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.12.040
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455-471. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02103658
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1501_01

• O’Haire, M. E., & Rodriguez, K. E. (2018). Preliminary efficacy of service dogs as a complementary treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in military members and veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 86(2), 179-188. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000267
• U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD. (n.d.). Dogs and PTSD. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/gethelp/dogs_ptsd.asp
• Guide Dogs of America. (n.d.). Service dog do’s and don’ts. https://www.guidedogsofamerica.org/gda-programs/graduate-services/

Grounding

● Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Trauma-informed care in behavioral health services (Treatment Improvement Protocol 57). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207201/

Sleep and PTSD

● Miller, K. E., Brownlow, J. A., Woodward, S., & Gehrman, P. R. (2017). Sleep and dreaming in posttraumatic stress disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(10), 71.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0827-1

PTSD and substance use

● U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD. (n.d.). Treatment of co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorder in VA.
https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/cooccurring/tx_sud_va.asp

Dissociation

● U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD. (n.d.). Dissociative subtype of PTSD.
https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dissociative_subtype.asp

Military experience and hypervigilance

● Institute of Medicine. (2013). Returning home from Iraq and Afghanistan: Assessment of readjustment needs of veterans, service members, and their families. The National Academies Press.
https://doi.org/10.17226/13499

Nature and recovery-supportive activities

● Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., & Kaplan, S. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1207-1212.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02225.x

Meaningful activities and participation

● Edgelow, M. M., MacPherson, M. M., Arnaly, F., Tam-Seto, L., & Cramm, H. A. (2019). Occupational therapy and posttraumatic stress disorder: A scoping review. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 86(2), 148-157.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0008417419831438

The wording and structure of this website were also informed by accounts from people living with PTSD and by feedback from reviewers with relevant personal or professional experience.

Lived experience is not presented as a substitute for scientific evidence. It is included because clinical descriptions alone do not always convey how PTSD affects everyday life, relationships, identity, trust, and participation in the world.